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Chinese Sages Series: Four Books

汉英对照中国圣人文化丛书：四 书—《大学》，《中庸》，《论语》，《孟子》

The Four Books, or the Four Classics, are the Chinese classic texts selected by Zhu Xi in the Song dynasty to serve as an introduction to Chinese philosophy and Confucianism. They are:

• the Great Learning
• the Doctrine of the Mean
• the Analects of Confucius
• the Mencius

The Great Learning (大學, Dΰ Xuι) is the first of the Four books which were selected by Zhu Xi in the Song Dynasty as a foundational introduction to Confucianism. It was originally one chapter in Li Ji (the Classic of Rites).

The book consists of a short main text, attributed to Confucius and nine commentaries chapters by Zeng Zi, one of Confucius' disciples. Its importance is illustrated by Zeng Zi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning.

The main text reads

The Way of the great learning is to rid oneself of selfish desires and develop further one's inherent virtures. One should not only develop his own inherent virtures further, but should encourage all persons to do so also. Only then is it possible to reach the acme of perfection. (...)

In ancient times, one who intended to carry forward all the inherent virtures in the world and to rid them of material desires had to first rule his state well.
To rule his state well, he had to first educate his family.
To educate his family, he had first to cultivate himself.
To cultivate himself, he had first to set his heart right.
To set his heart right, he had first to be sincere and honest.
To be sincere and honest, he had first to perfect his knowledge and the perfection of his knowledge depended on his investigation of things.

It is only when one is able to investigate things that knowledge can be perfected.
It is only when one's knowledge is perfect that one can be sincere and honest.
It is only when one is honest and sincere that he can set his heart right.
It is only when the heart is set right that a man can educate his family.
It is only when his family is educated that he can rule the state.
It is only when the state is ruled that the world can be governed well.
From emperor to the common people, self-cultivation is the base. (...)

The Great Learning is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought.

Government, self cultivation and investigation of things are linked. It links together individual action in the form of self-cultivation with higher goals such as ultimate world peace as well as linking together the spiritual and the material. In addition, by defining the path of learning (dao) in governmental and social terms, the Great Learning both links the spiritual with the practical, and creates a vision of dao that is radically different than that presented by Daoism. In particular, the Great Learning sets Confucianism as being this-worldly rather than other-worldly. Finally, the Great Learning also creates a conservative politics discourse. Instead of basing its authority on an external deity, the Great Learning bases its authority on the practices of ancient kings.

The text also sets up a number of controversies that have underlain Chinese philosophy and political thinking. For example, one major controversy has been to define exactly the investigation of things. What things are to be investigated and how has been one of the crucial issues of Chinese philosophy.

The Doctrine of the Mean (中庸, pinyin: Zhōngyōng) is one of the Four Books, part of the Confucian canonical scriptures.

Like the Great Learning, it is now part of the Records of Rites. It is said to be a composition by Confucius' grandson Kong Ji (孔伋), called Zisi (子思).

The purpose of this small, 23-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue. It focuses on the "way" (dΰo, 道) that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue. Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.

Analects (論語 Pinyin: Lϊnyǔ), or Analects of Confucius, written in twenty chapters, is thought to be a composition of the late Spring and Autumn Period. It is undoubtedly the most influential text in East Asian intellectual history, collecting maxims and short discussions between Confucius and his disciples. Many of them take sense in an historically well-defined context.
It is within this work that most of the basic framework regarding Confucian values such as humaneness (仁), righteousness (義), filial piety (孝), and propriety (禮) is uncovered.
The book opens on a sentence beginning with the word 'learn', a constant injunction in the Analects:
Confucius said, Is it not a pleasure after all to practice in due time what one has learnt? Is it ont a delight after all to have friends come from afar? Is it not a gentleman after all who will not take offence when others fail to appreciate him?
Chapter X contains detailed descriptions of Confucius' behaviors in different daily activities. This has been pointed at by Voltaire and Ezra Pound to show how much he was human, not god, not even a saint. Simon Leys, who recently translated the Analects into French and English, says that this book may well have been the first in human history to describe the life of a man.
There are various theories regarding its compilation, but it is obvious that it is somewhat of a patchwork, assembled over a period of time, but the core of the book could be attributed to the second generation disciples.

Mencius (most accepted dates: 372 BC – 289 BC; other possible dates: 385 BC – 303 BC or 302 BC) was born in the State of Zou (鄒國), now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng (邹城市), Shandong province, only 30 km (18 miles) south of Qufu, the town of Confucius. He was an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of the principal interpreters of Confucianism. Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform. He served as an official during the Warring States Period (403 – 221 BC) in the State of Qi (齊 qμ) from 319 BC to 312 BC. He expressed his filial devotion when he took an absence of three years from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life.

A follower of Confucianism, Mencius argued for the infinite goodness of the individual, believing that it was society's influence—its lack of a positive cultivating influence—which caused bad character. He even argued that it was acceptable for people to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignored the people's needs and ruled harshly. Mencius argued that human beings are born with an innate moral sense which society has corrupted, and that the goal of moral cultivation is to return to one's innate morality.

Mencius' interpretation of Confucianism has generally been considered the orthodox version by subsequent Chinese philosophers, especially the Neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty. Mencius (also spelled Mengzi or Meng-tzu), a book of his conversations with kings of the time, is one of the Four books which form the core of orthodox Confucian thinking. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius which are short and self-contained, Mencius consists of long dialogues with extensive prose.

Mencius spoke frequently and highly of the well-field system.

《大学》，《中庸》，《论语》，《孟子》，它们在我国历史上，从南宋时期起被编辑在一起，称为“四书”，而成为儒学门徒必读之“经书”。四书按照普通的顺序是《大学》、《中庸》、《论语》、《孟子》，前二者又简称《学》、《庸》，后二者又简称《论》、《孟》；有了简称，可见这些书是用得很熟的。从前私熟里，学生入学，是从四书读起的。这是那些时代的小学教科书，而且是统一的标准的小学教科书，因为没有不用的。这四种书原来并不在一起，《学》、《庸》都在《礼记》里，《论》、《孟》是单行的。这些书原来只算是诸子书，朱子（南宋大儒朱熹）原来也只称为“四子”，但《礼记》、《论》、《孟》在汉代都立过博士，已经都升到经里去了。后来唐代的“九经”里虽然只有《礼记》，宋代的“十三经”却又将《论》、《孟》收了进去。《中庸》很早就被人单独注意，汉代已有关于《中庸》的著作，六朝时也有，可惜都不传了。关于《大学》的著作，却直到司马光的《大学通义》才开始，这部书也不传了。这些著作并不曾较《学》、《庸》普及，较《学》、《庸》和《论》、《孟》同样普及的是朱子的注。四书也是他编在一起的，四书的名字也因他而有。他那一套“四书”注实在用尽了平生的力量，改定至再至三；直到临死的时候，他还在改定《大学·诚意》章的注。他注“四书”在宋孝宗淳熙年间（西元1174——1189）。他死后朝廷将他的“四书”注审定为官书，从此盛行起来。从元仁宗皇庆二年（西元1313年）起, 将朱注“四书”定为科举用书。规定这四种书，自然因为这些书本身重要。有人人必读的价值；规定朱注，也因为朱注发明书义比旧注好些，切用些。科举是一种竞争的考试制度，考试的主要科目是八股文，题目都出在“四书”里，而且是朱注的“四书”里。科举分几级，考中的得着种种出身或资格，凭着这种资格可以建功立业，也可以升官发财。科举几乎是当时读书人唯一的出路。每个学生都先读“四书”，而且读的是朱注，便是这个缘故。

《大学》是孔门的遗书，是初学者入德的门径。只有从这部书里，还可以知道古人做学问的程序。《中庸》是孔门传授心法的书，是子思记下来传给孟子的。书中所述的人生哲理，意味深长；会读书的细加玩赏，自然能心领神悟终身受用不尽。《论语》是孔子弟子们记的。这部书不但显示一个伟大人格—孔子，并且让读者学习许多做学问的节目：如“君子”、“仁”、“忠恕”，如“时习”、 “阙疑”、“好三”、“隅反”、“择善”、“困学”等，都是可以终身应用的。《孟子》据说是孟子本人和弟子公孙丑，万章等共同编定的。书中说“仁”兼说“义”，分辩“义”“利”甚严，而辩“性善”，教人求“放心”，影响更大。又说到“养浩然之气”，那“至大至刚”、“配义与道”的“浩然之气”，这是修养的最高境界，所谓天人相通的哲理，书中攻击杨朱、墨翟两派，辞锋咄咄逼人。这在儒家叫作攻异端，功劳是很大的。孟子生在战国时代，他不免“好辩”，和孔子的温润是不同的。所以儒家只称“亚圣”，次于孔子一等。

有了《大学》的提纲挈领，便能领会《论》《孟》里精微的分别去处：融贯了《论》、《孟》旨趣，也便能领会《中庸》里的心法。《中庸》是孔门传授心法的书，是子思记下来传给孟子的。书中所述的人生哲理。人有人心和道心；人心是私欲，道心是天理。人该修养道心，克制人心，这是心法。朱子的意思，不领会《中庸》里的心法，是不能从大处着眼，读天下的书，论天下的事的。会读书的细加玩赏，自然能心领神悟终身受用不尽。

《四书》，就其思想内容来说，概括地反映了从孔子经过曾参、子思到孟子，儒家学派思想发展的历程。这一发展历程构成了儒家学派思想发展的主流，在我国历史上曾经产生广泛深远的影响。

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